1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates generally to protein purification. In particular, the invention relates to a method for purifying proteins (such as antibodies and antibody-like molecules, e.g. immunoadhesins) from a composition comprising the polypeptide and at least one impurity without the use of affinity chromatography.
2. Description of the Related Art
The large-scale, economic purification of proteins is increasingly an important problem for the biotechnology industry. Generally, proteins are produced by cell culture, using either mammalian or bacterial cell lines engineered to produce the protein of interest by insertion of a recombinant plasmid containing the gene for that protein. Since the cell lines used are living organisms, they must be fed with a complex growth medium, containing sugars, amino acids, and growth factors, usually supplied from preparations of animal serum. Separation of the desired protein from the mixture of compounds fed to the cells and from the by-products of the cells themselves to a purity sufficient for use as a human therapeutic poses a formidable challenge.
Procedures for purification of proteins from cell debris initially depend on the site of expression of the protein. Some proteins are caused to be secreted directly from the cell into the surrounding growth media; others are made intracellularly. For the latter proteins, the first step of a purification process involves lysis of the cell, which can be done by a variety of methods, including mechanical shear, osmotic shock, or enzymatic treatments. Such disruption releases the entire contents of the cell into the homogenate, and in addition produces subcellular fragments that are difficult to remove due to their small size. These are generally removed by centrifugation or by filtration. The same problem arises, although on a smaller scale, with directly secreted proteins due to the natural death of cells and release of intracellular host cell proteins in the course of the protein production run.
Once a solution containing the protein of interest is obtained, its separation from the other proteins produced by the cell is usually attempted using a combination of different chromatography techniques. These techniques separate mixtures of proteins on the basis of their charge, degree of hydrophobicity, or size. Several different chromatography resins are available for each of these techniques, allowing accurate tailoring of the purification scheme to the particular protein involved. The essence of each of these separation methods is that proteins can be caused either to move at different rates down a long column, achieving a physical separation that increases as they pass further down the column, or to adhere selectively to the separation medium, being then differentially eluted by different solvents. In some cases, the desired protein is separated from impurities when the impurities specifically adhere to the column, and the protein of interest does not, that is, the protein of interest is present in the “flow-through.”
Ion-exchange chromatography, named for the exchangeable counterion, is a procedure applicable to purification of ionizable molecules. Ionized molecules are separated on the basis of the non-specific electrostatic interaction of their charged groups with oppositely charged molecules attached to the solid phase support matrix, thereby retarding those ionized molecules that interact more strongly with solid phase. The net charge of each type of ionized molecule, and its affinity for the matrix, varies according to the number of charged groups, the charge of each group, and the nature of the molecules competing for interaction with the charged solid phase matrix. These differences result in resolution of various molecule types by ion-exchange chromatography. In typical protein purification using ion exchange chromatography, a mixture of many proteins derived from a host cell, such as in mammalian cell culture, is applied to an ion-exchange column. After non-binding molecules are washed away, conditions are adjusted, such as by changing pH, counter ion concentration and the like in step- or gradient-mode, to release from the solid phase a non-specifically retained or retarded ionized protein of interest and separating it from proteins having different charge characteristics. Anion exchange chromatography involves competition of an anionic molecule of interest with the negative counter ion for interaction with a positively charged molecule attached to the solid phase matrix at the pH and under the conditions of a particular separation process. By contrast, cation exchange chromatography involves competition of a cationic molecule of interest with the positive counter ion for a negatively charged molecule attached to the solid phase matrix at the pH and under the conditions of a particular separation process. Mixed mode ion exchange chromatography involves the use of a combination of cation and anion exchange chromatographic media in the same step. In particular, “mixed-mode” refers to a solid phase support matrix to which is covalently attached a mixture of cation exchange, anion exchange, and hydrophobic interaction moieties. A commercially available representative of mixed-mode ion exchange chromatographic columns is ABx™, the use of which is described in the Examples.
Hydroxyapatite chromatography of proteins involves the non-specific interaction of the charged amino or carboxylate groups of a protein with oppositely charged groups on the hydroxyapatite, where the net charge of the hydroxyapatite and protein are controlled by the pH of the buffer. Elution is accomplished by displacing the non-specific protein-hydroxyapatite pairing with ions such as Ca2+ or Mg2+. Negatively charged protein groups are displaced by negatively charged compounds, such as phosphates, thereby eluting a net-negatively charged protein.
Hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC) is useful for the purification and separation of molecules, such as proteins, based on differences in their surface hydrophobicity. Hydrophobic groups of a protein interact non-specifically with hydrophobic groups coupled to the chromatography matrix. Differences in the number and nature of protein surface hydrophobic groups results in differential retardation of proteins on an HIC column and, as a result, separation of proteins in a mixture of proteins.
Hydrophobic charge induction (HCI) chromatography is useful for the separation of biological molecules, such as proteins, based on the pH-dependent behavior of ionizable, dual-mode ligands (Boschetti, E. et al., Genetic Engineering News 20(13) (2000)). At neutral pH, the ligand is uncharged and binds a protein of interest via mild non-specific hydrophobic interaction. As pH is reduced during a buffer gradient, the ligand becomes positively charged and hydrophobic binding is disrupted by electrostatic charge repulsion (Boschetti, E. (2000), supra). The gentle conditions used in HCI reduces the risk of protein denaturation and antibody aggregation.
Affinity chromatography, which exploits a specific structurally dependent (i.e., spatially complementary) interaction between the protein to be purified and an immobilized capture agent, is a standard purification option for some proteins, such as antibodies. Protein A, for example, is a useful adsorbent for affinity chromatography of proteins, such as antibodies, which contain an Fc region. Protein A is a 41kD cell wall protein from Staphylococcus aureas which binds with a high affinity (about 10−8M to human IgG) to the Fc region of antibodies. Despite its common use, affinity chromatography is costly, particularly at the industrial scale necessary to purify therapeutic proteins.
High-performance tangential-flow filtration (HPTFF) is a membrane technology useful for the separation of protein mixtures without limit to their relative size (Zydney, A. L. and van Reis, R., High-Performance Tangential-Flow Filtration, ch. 10, in Membrane Separations in Biotechnology, 2d ed., William K. Wang, ed., Marcel Dekker, Inc., NY, N.Y. (2001), pp. 277-298; van Reis, R. et al. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 56:71-82 (1997); and van Reis, R., U.S. Pat. No. 5,256,694, U.S. Pat. No. 5,490,937, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,054,051, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety). HPTFF can be used throughout the downstream purification process to remove specific impurities (such as proteins, DNA, or endotoxins), clear viruses, and/or eliminate protein oligomers or degradation products. HPTFF is unique among available separation technologies in that it can effect simultaneous purification, concentration, and buffer exchange, allowing several different separations steps to be combined into a single scalable unit operation.
Despite these advanced chromatography and filtration methods, affinity chromatography is often employed as a capture step to meet the purity, yield, and throughput requirements for pharmaceutical antibody purification. The high cost and instability of affinity media, however, increases the ultimate cost of antibody therapeutics, particularly those requiring high doses and/or chronic administration. In addition, adequate purity often is not achieved unless several purification steps are combined, thereby further increasing cost and reducing product yield. Antibodies account for an increasingly large percentage of therapeutic products on the market and in development in the United States for the treatment of, for example, cancer, autoimmune disease, infectious disease, cardiovascular disease, and transplant rejection (Stratan, F. et al., Monoclonal Antibodies—Coming of Age, 1 (2001), and Booth, M. et al., Monoclonal Antibodies: Targeting the Issues, 1 (2001)). Consequently, there is a need for processes that purify protein therapeutics or other polypeptide compounds using fewer steps and without the need for a costly affinity step.